Glossary of Government Agencies

Communications & Telecommunications Agencies

These agencies regulate and oversee telecommunications, internet and communications security.

• FCC (Federal Communications Commission) – The FCC is an independent U.S. government agency that regulates interstate and international communications across radio, television, wire, satellite and cable. Its mission is to ensure reliable, fair and secure communications while promoting competition, innovation and consumer protection. The FCC enforces regulations related to broadband access, net neutrality, emergency communication systems and spectrum management, ensuring efficient and equitable use of public airwaves. Additionally, the FCC plays a role in telecommunications cybersecurity, working with agencies like CISA and NTIA to mitigate threats to national communications infrastructure. The agency also oversees compliance with laws such as the Telephone Consumer Protection Act (TCPA) to protect consumers from fraudulent robocalls and data privacy violations in telecom services.
  
• NTIA (National Telecommunications and Information Administration) – The NTIA is an executive agency within the U.S. Department of Commerce that advises the White House on telecommunications and information policy. It plays a key role in broadband expansion, spectrum management and internet policy development, ensuring that the U.S. remains a leader in digital infrastructure. NTIA works to increase broadband access and adoption, particularly in underserved communities, through initiatives like the Broadband Equity, Access and Deployment (BEAD) Program. It also oversees federal spectrum use, coordinating with agencies such as the FCC and Department of Defense (DOD) to balance the needs of commercial and government entities. Additionally, NTIA advocates for data privacy, cybersecurity and digital economy policies, influencing regulations that impact telecommunications security, 5G deployment and the resilience of national communications infrastructure.
  
• ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) – ICANN is a nonprofit global organization responsible for coordinating the Internet’s domain name system (DNS), IP addresses and internet governance policies. It ensures that domain names (like .com, .org, .gov) and numerical IP addresses are uniquely assigned and properly managed to maintain a stable and secure internet. ICANN also oversees the root zone of the DNS, working with registrars and registries to prevent domain hijacking, phishing and cyber threats. Through its Security and Stability Advisory Committee (SSAC), ICANN helps safeguard internet infrastructure against cyberattacks and unauthorized modifications. Additionally, ICANN plays a role in global internet policy, collaborating with governments, businesses and technical organizations to support secure and transparent internet operations worldwide.
  
• ITU (International Telecommunication Union) – ITU is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for developing global communication standards, managing radio frequency spectrum and improving worldwide access to telecommunications. It is critical in allocating satellite orbits, coordinating international wireless communications and setting technical standards to ensure seamless global connectivity. ITU’s work impacts everything from 5G deployment and broadband expansion to cybersecurity and emergency communications. The agency also supports developing nations in building secure and resilient telecommunications infrastructure, helping to bridge the digital divide. ITU collaborates with governments, industry leaders and regulatory bodies like the FCC and ICANN to promote a secure, interoperable and equitable global communications network.

Cybersecurity & Data Protection Agencies

These agencies create policies, frameworks and standards for cybersecurity, critical infrastructure protection and data security.

• CISA (Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency) – CISA is a federal agency under the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) tasked with protecting U.S. critical infrastructure from cyber threats, physical attacks and national security risks. It serves as the nation’s lead agency for cybersecurity defense, providing threat intelligence, risk assessments and incident response coordination for government agencies, businesses and critical industries such as energy, healthcare and finance. CISA also operates programs like the National Cybersecurity Protection System (NCPS) and the Joint Cyber Defense Collaborative (JCDC) to detect and mitigate cyber threats. Additionally, CISA works closely with state and local governments, private sector partners and international organizations to improve resilience against ransomware, data breaches and emerging cyber threats. Through initiatives like Cyber Storm exercises and Shields Up alerts, CISA helps organizations prepare for and respond to cyber incidents, ensuring the security of essential infrastructure nationwide.
  
• NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) – NIST is a U.S. federal agency under the Department of Commerce that develops cybersecurity frameworks, standards and guidelines to enhance the security and resilience of government and private sector systems. NIST’s work is widely used across industries to improve risk management, data protection and cyber defense strategies.
  Key frameworks include:
  • NIST Cybersecurity Framework (CSF): A widely adopted risk-based approach to managing cybersecurity threats.
  • NIST 800-53: A comprehensive set of security and privacy controls for federal agencies and contractors.
  • NIST 800-171: A standard for protecting Controlled Unclassified Information (CUI) in non-federal systems, particularly defense contractors under DFARS/CMMC requirements.
    
    NIST also provides guidelines for encryption (FIPS 140-2/3), identity management, IoT security and emerging technologies like quantum cryptography and AI security. Its research supports public and private sector cybersecurity efforts, influencing global best practices in data security, network protection and compliance standards.
    
• NSA (National Security Agency) – The NSA is a U.S. intelligence agency responsible for cybersecurity, cryptography and signals intelligence (SIGINT). It plays a crucial role in protecting government networks, conducting cyber defense operations and securing classified communications. The NSA develops and enforces encryption standards, such as Suite B Cryptography and FIPS 140-2/3, ensuring that sensitive government and military data remain protected.
  
  The NSA identifies and mitigates cyber threats through its Cybersecurity Directorate, offering guidance on securing critical infrastructure, defense systems and national security assets. It collaborates with agencies like CISA and NIST to set federal cybersecurity policies and provides cybersecurity advisories to private sector organizations. The NSA is also known for its offensive cyber operations, helping to detect and counter foreign cyber threats that could impact U.S. national security.
  
• DHS (Department of Homeland Security) – DHS is a cabinet-level agency created after 9/11 that serves as the primary federal department responsible for protecting the United States from physical and cyber threats. It coordinates national security efforts across multiple domains, including cybersecurity, border protection, counterterrorism and emergency response.
  
  In the cyber realm, DHS houses several key organizations, including CISA, which leads civilian cybersecurity operations and the Secret Service’s Electronic Crimes Task Forces. The agency maintains the National Cybersecurity and Communications Integration Center (NCCIC), a 24/7 cyber situational awareness facility that monitors threats to critical infrastructure.
  
  DHS also oversees disaster response through FEMA (Federal Emergency Management Agency), coordinates intelligence sharing across federal, state and local agencies and works to protect critical infrastructure sectors like energy, communications and transportation. Through programs like the National Infrastructure Protection Plan (NIPP), DHS helps ensure the resilience of essential services and systems that Americans rely on daily.
  
• ODNI (Office of the Director of National Intelligence) – National Cybersecurity Center – The ODNI, established by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004, leads the U.S. Intelligence Community (IC) and is the principal advisor to the President on intelligence matters. Through its National Cybersecurity Center, ODNI is crucial in coordinating cybersecurity efforts across 18 intelligence agencies, including the CIA, NSA and FBI.
  
  The agency synthesizes cyber threat intelligence from multiple sources to comprehensively analyze nation-state threats, cyber espionage and emerging cyber risks. ODNI helps establish unified cybersecurity policies and standards across the intelligence community, ensuring consistent protection of classified systems and sensitive information. It also facilitates information sharing between intelligence agencies and the private sector through programs like the Cyber Threat Intelligence Integration Center (CTIIC), which produces coordinated assessments of significant cyber threats to U.S. national interests.
  
  Additionally, ODNI works to strengthen the nation’s cyber workforce through various recruitment and training initiatives, helping to ensure the Intelligence Community maintains its technological edge in cyberspace.
  
• US-CERT (United States Computer Emergency Readiness Team) – A division of CISA that serves as the nation’s primary operational cyber incident response organization. US-CERT operates 24/7 to monitor, analyze and respond to cybersecurity threats affecting the federal government, critical infrastructure and private sector organizations.
  
  The team provides real-time threat intelligence through its National Cyber Awareness System (NCAS), issuing alerts about vulnerabilities, malware and emerging cyber threats. US-CERT coordinates incident response efforts during major cyber events, helping organizations contain and recover from attacks while sharing actionable mitigation strategies.
  
  Through its vulnerability disclosure program and security bulletins, US-CERT helps organizations patch security flaws before they can be exploited. The team collaborates with international partners, including other national CERTs, to share threat information and coordinate responses to global cyber incidents. US-CERT also maintains the National Vulnerability Database (NVD), a comprehensive repository of software vulnerabilities that helps organizations assess and manage their cybersecurity risks.
  
• DOE (Department of Energy) – Office of Cybersecurity, Energy Security and Emergency Response (CESER) – This specialized office within the Department of Energy focuses on protecting America’s energy infrastructure from cyber attacks and other threats. CESER works to secure the nation’s power grid, oil and gas facilities and other critical energy systems increasingly targeted by sophisticated cyber threats.
  
  The office leads several key initiatives, including the Cybersecurity Risk Information Sharing Program (CRISP), which enables real-time sharing of cyber threat data between energy companies and the government. CESER also researches emerging grid security technologies, supports incident response for the energy sector and coordinates with private industry partners to improve cyber resilience.
  
  Through its Cybersecurity Testing for Resilient Industrial Control Systems (CyTRICS) program, CESER evaluates the security of critical energy components and systems. The office also provides specialized training and exercises for energy sector cybersecurity professionals, helping to ensure the workforce is prepared to detect and respond to evolving threats targeting vital energy infrastructure.
  
• MITRE Corporation – A not-for-profit organization that operates multiple federally funded research and development centers (FFRDCs), providing innovative solutions for critical national security challenges. MITRE is best known in the cybersecurity community for developing the ATT&CK (Adversarial Tactics, Techniques and Common Knowledge) framework, which has become a global standard for understanding and categorizing cyber threat behaviors.
  The organization also maintains other important security resources, including:
  • CVE (Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures) Program: The industry standard for identifying and cataloging cybersecurity vulnerabilities
  • CALDERA: An automated adversary emulation system for testing security defenses
  • D3FEND: A knowledge graph of cybersecurity countermeasures
  • SHIELD: A knowledge base for active defense techniques
  • MITRE collaborates with government agencies, industry partners and academic institutions to advance cybersecurity research and development. Through its Center for Threat-Informed Defense, MITRE works with global partners to conduct applied research that enhances cyber defense capabilities. The organization also provides technical guidance to government agencies on complex systems engineering challenges and cybersecurity program development.

Data Privacy & Consumer Protection Agencies

These agencies enforce data privacy laws and ensure consumer protection against data breaches.

• FTC (Federal Trade Commission) – The FTC is an independent federal agency that serves as America’s primary consumer protection authority, with broad powers to enforce data privacy and cybersecurity regulations. Through its Bureau of Consumer Protection, the FTC investigates and prosecutes companies for unfair or deceptive practices related to data security, privacy violations and identity theft.
  
  The agency enforces key regulations like the Children’s Online Privacy Protection Act (COPPA) and the Fair Credit Reporting Act (FCRA). It can bring enforcement actions against companies that fail to implement reasonable security measures or mishandle consumer data. Notable cases have resulted in significant fines and mandatory security improvements for major technology companies and data brokers.
  
  The FTC also guides businesses on compliance with privacy laws and cybersecurity best practices through initiatives like “Start with Security” and the “Privacy by Design” framework. Through its IdentityTheft.gov platform, the agency helps consumers report and recover from identity theft incidents, while its Consumer Sentinel Network allows law enforcement agencies to access and analyze consumer complaint data about cyber fraud and privacy violations.
  
• OCR (Office for Civil Rights, HHS) – The Office for Civil Rights within the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) plays a crucial role in enforcing healthcare privacy and security regulations, particularly the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). OCR investigates complaints about privacy violations, conducts compliance audits and enforces penalties against healthcare organizations that fail to protect patient data.
  The office has broad authority to:
  • Investigate breaches of protected health information (PHI)
  • Issue guidance on HIPAA compliance and security standards
  • Impose civil monetary penalties for privacy violations
  • Conduct random audits of healthcare providers and insurers
  • Enforce the HITECH Act requirements for electronic health records
    
    OCR also maintains a public breach portal (often called the “Wall of Shame”) that lists all healthcare data breaches affecting 500 or more individuals. Through its guidance and enforcement actions, OCR helps set standards for how healthcare organizations must secure electronic health records, implement access controls and respond to data breaches while ensuring patients’ rights to access their own health information.
    
• EU Data Protection Authorities (DPAs) – These are independent public authorities established in each European Union member state to enforce data protection laws, particularly the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Each DPA has investigative and corrective powers within its national jurisdiction, while also collaborating with other EU DPAs through the European Data Protection Board (EDPB).
  DPAs have significant enforcement capabilities, including:
  • Conducting investigations into potential GDPR violations
  • Issuing warnings and fines to non-compliant organizations
  • Ordering companies to modify their data processing practices
  • Temporarily or permanently banning certain data processing activities
  • Handling complaints from individuals about privacy violations
  • Guiding GDPR compliance to organizations
    
    These authorities serve as the first point of contact for individuals and organizations in their respective countries regarding data protection matters. They are crucial in the GDPR’s “one-stop-shop” mechanism, where cross-border cases are coordinated through a lead supervisory authority. Notable DPAs include France’s CNIL, Ireland’s Data Protection Commission (which oversees many major tech companies due to their EU headquarters locations) and Germany’s state-level data protection authorities. CopyRetry
    
• EDPB (European Data Protection Board) – The EDPB is the central body responsible for consistently applying the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) across the European Union. Created as part of the GDPR implementation, it replaced the former Article 29 Working Party and serves as a coordination hub for all EU Data Protection Authorities (DPAs).
  The EDPB’s key responsibilities include:
  • Issuing guidelines and recommendations on GDPR interpretation
  • Resolving disputes between national DPAs on cross-border cases
    • Making binding decisions in cases of disagreement between supervisory authorities
  • Providing expert advice on significant data protection matters
  • Approving certification criteria and codes of conduct
  • Maintaining registers of decisions taken by national supervisory authorities
  • The Board plays a crucial role in the GDPR’s consistency mechanism, ensuring that major privacy decisions affecting multiple EU countries are handled uniformly.
    
    The EDPB develops common positions on emerging privacy challenges, from artificial intelligence to international data transfers, through its plenary sessions and expert subgroups. It also works closely with the European Commission and other EU institutions to shape the evolution of European data protection law.

Financial & Regulatory Agencies (Data Security in Finance)

These agencies regulate financial transactions, banking security and anti-money laundering (AML) compliance.

• SEC (Securities and Exchange Commission) – The SEC is a U.S. federal regulatory agency responsible for overseeing and enforcing regulations within the financial markets, including securities trading, investment firms and publicly traded companies. In addition to protecting investors and maintaining fair markets, the SEC enforces cybersecurity requirements to ensure that financial institutions safeguard sensitive information and disclose cyber risks effectively.
  
  The SEC requires companies to implement robust cyber risk management programs, conduct regular assessments and disclose material cyber incidents that could impact investors. Through regulations like Regulation S-P (privacy of consumer financial information) and Regulation SCI (Systems Compliance and Integrity), the SEC holds firms accountable for maintaining cybersecurity protections. The agency also issues guidance on cybersecurity risk disclosures, ensuring transparency about potential vulnerabilities and breaches in the financial sector.
  
• FINRA (Financial Industry Regulatory Authority) – FINRA is a self-regulatory organization that oversees brokerage firms, investment companies and securities firms in the U.S., operating under the supervision of the SEC. Its mission is to protect investors and maintain market integrity by enforcing compliance with federal securities laws and industry regulations.
  
  FINRA sets and enforces standards to ensure that member firms implement effective cyber risk management, data protection measures and incident response plans. It issues regular guidance and reports on emerging cyber threats, including best practices for safeguarding client data, securing networks and preventing fraud. FINRA also conducts cybersecurity examinations and requires firms to establish policies that address threats like phishing, ransomware and insider risks, helping to protect both investors and the stability of the financial markets.
  
• OCC (Office of the Comptroller of the Currency) – The OCC is a federal agency under the U.S. Department of the Treasury responsible for regulating and supervising national banks, federal savings associations and federal branches of foreign banks. Its mission is to ensure the safety, soundness and compliance of the U.S. banking system, which includes managing cybersecurity risks that could threaten financial stability.
  
  The OCC issues guidelines and regulations that require banks to implement robust cyber risk management frameworks, including regular risk assessments, incident response plans and third-party vendor oversight. Through policies like the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) and Heightened Standards Guidelines, the OCC enforces data protection, fraud prevention and threat detection controls. It also collaborates with agencies such as the FDIC, SEC and FFIEC to ensure that cybersecurity standards keep pace with evolving threats, protecting financial institutions and consumer data.
  
• FDIC (Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation) – The FDIC is a U.S. federal agency that provides deposit insurance to protect consumers’ funds in banks and savings institutions while also overseeing the safety and soundness of the banking system. A key part of this mission involves cybersecurity oversight and fraud prevention for insured financial institutions.
  
  The FDIC establishes guidelines requiring banks to implement strong cyber risk management frameworks, conduct regular vulnerability assessments and maintain effective incident response plans. It also works with organizations like the FFIEC to develop cybersecurity examination procedures and ensure compliance with regulations such as the Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA) and the Bank Secrecy Act (BSA). The FDIC monitors threats such as ransomware, data breaches and fraud schemes, helping financial institutions enhance their defenses and protect consumer data from cyber threats.
  
• FFIEC (Federal Financial Institutions Examination Council) – The FFIEC is an interagency body that sets cybersecurity guidelines and regulatory standards for financial institutions in the United States. It comprises agency representatives, including the FDIC, OCC, Federal Reserve, NCUA and CFPB. Its primary mission is to promote the uniform supervision of financial institutions and ensure the safety and soundness of the financial system.
  
  In cybersecurity, the FFIEC develops frameworks and tools like the Cybersecurity Assessment Tool (CAT) to help banks and credit unions identify, assess and mitigate cyber risks. It also provides guidance on incident response planning, risk management, third-party vendor oversight and regulatory compliance. The council regularly issues alerts and updates on emerging cyber threats, ensuring financial institutions maintain strong defenses against cyberattacks, fraud and data breaches.

Defense & National Security Agencies

These agencies handle cybersecurity for national defense, intelligence and classified data.

• DOD (Department of Defense) – The DOD is a U.S. federal agency responsible for overseeing national defense and military operations, including protecting critical defense infrastructure from cyber threats. It plays a central role in developing and enforcing cybersecurity frameworks to safeguard sensitive military information and national security assets.
  
  One of its key initiatives is the Cybersecurity Maturity Model Certification (CMMC), a framework designed to ensure that defense contractors and suppliers handling Controlled Unclassified Information (CUI) meet strict cybersecurity standards. The DOD also conducts cyber defense operations through entities like U.S. Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM), which defends military networks from cyberattacks. In addition, the DOD collaborates with other agencies, such as the NSA and DHS, to strengthen national cyber defense strategies and ensure the resilience of military communications and critical infrastructure.
  
• NSA (National Security Agency) – The NSA is a U.S. intelligence agency that protects classified and military networks by developing cybersecurity best practices, encryption standards and cyber defense strategies. Its mission includes safeguarding national security information, securing government communications and preventing cyber espionage.
  
  The NSA provides guidance on securing critical infrastructure, defense systems and sensitive government data through its Cybersecurity Directorate. It develops advanced encryption protocols, such as Suite B Cryptography and contributes to federal cybersecurity frameworks used across military and intelligence agencies. The NSA also conducts threat detection, vulnerability assessments and cyber defense operations to protect against foreign cyber threats, working closely with entities like USCYBERCOM, CISA and the Department of Defense to enhance national cybersecurity resilience.
  
• FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) – Cyber Division – The FBI Cyber Division is a specialized branch of the Federal Bureau of Investigation dedicated to investigating and combating cybercrimes, including ransomware attacks, cyber espionage, intellectual property theft and nation-state cyber threats. Its mission is to protect U.S. national security, critical infrastructure and economic interests from cyber-based threats.
  
  The division works closely with other government agencies, such as CISA, NSA and USCYBERCOM, as well as international law enforcement partners through initiatives like Operation Cyber Guardian and the Cyber Action Team (CAT). It also manages cyber threat intelligence through platforms like InfraGard and the Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3), which allows individuals and businesses to report cyber incidents. The FBI plays a crucial role in responding to large-scale cyberattacks, disrupting ransomware networks and investigating cyber operations linked to foreign adversaries.
  
• CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) – The CIA is a U.S. intelligence agency primarily responsible for gathering, analyzing and acting on foreign intelligence to protect national security. In the realm of cybersecurity, the CIA focuses on cyber intelligence, cyber espionage and counterintelligence operations to detect and neutralize threats from foreign adversaries.
  
  Through its Center for Cyber Intelligence (CCI), the CIA monitors global cyber activities, identifying potential cyberattacks, espionage campaigns and digital threats to U.S. interests. The agency also develops advanced cyber tools and technologies to support intelligence gathering and defend against cyber intrusions. Working closely with other agencies like the NSA, FBI and ODNI, the CIA plays a key role in protecting the U.S. from nation-state cyber threats, cyberterrorism and espionage targeting critical infrastructure and government networks.
  
• DIA (Defense Intelligence Agency) – The DIA is a U.S. defense agency responsible for providing military intelligence to support national security, defense policy and military operations. A key focus of the agency is analyzing cyber threats that could impact the U.S. military, defense infrastructure and national security interests.
  
  The DIA monitors and assesses foreign cyber capabilities, including potential cyberattacks from adversaries, cyber espionage activities and emerging digital threats. It works closely with agencies like the NSA, FBI, USCYBERCOM and CIA to share intelligence and develop strategies to counter cyber-enabled threats. The DIA’s cyber intelligence efforts help inform military operations, protect classified networks and strengthen the nation’s ability to defend against advanced cyber warfare tactics.
  
• USCYBERCOM (United States Cyber Command) – unified combatant command within the Department of Defense that plans and executes full-spectrum military cyberspace operations. Created in 2009 and elevated to a unified combatant command in 2018, USCYBERCOM defends DOD networks, supports military operations worldwide and protects critical U.S. infrastructure from nation-state cyber threats.
  
  The command operates through its Cyber Mission Force, comprising over 6,000 military and civilian personnel organized into teams specializing in defensive operations, offensive capabilities and support to combatant commands. Through its “defend forward” strategy, USCYBERCOM proactively engages adversaries in cyberspace before they can threaten U.S. interests, working closely with the NSA, intelligence community and international partners to identify and counter foreign cyber threats.
  
  USCYBERCOM also helps strengthen national cyber defenses by sharing threat intelligence with civilian agencies and critical infrastructure operators. The command regularly conducts joint exercises with allies and partners to improve collective cyber capabilities and establish common operating procedures for responding to global cyber threats. Its operations span the full spectrum of cyber warfare, from protecting military networks to conducting offensive operations when authorized by the President or Secretary of Defense.

Industry-Specific Agencies & Compliance Organizations

These agencies enforce industry-specific cybersecurity and compliance requirements.

• HHS (Department of Health and Human Services) – The nation’s primary agency for protecting public health and overseeing healthcare privacy by enforcing the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA). Through its Office for Civil Rights (OCR), HHS establishes and enforces standards for protecting patients’ electronic health records and other sensitive medical information.
  
  The agency develops and updates the HIPAA Privacy, Security and Breach Notification Rules, which set national standards for securing protected health information (PHI) across the healthcare industry. These regulations apply to healthcare providers, insurers and their business associates, requiring them to implement specific administrative, physical and technical safeguards for patient data.
  
  HHS works closely with healthcare organizations to improve cybersecurity practices through its 405(d) Program and Health Sector Cybersecurity Coordination Center (HC3), which provide threat intelligence and security guidance specific to the healthcare sector. The agency also maintains partnerships with the FBI, CISA and other federal agencies to combat ransomware and other cyber threats targeting healthcare facilities while providing resources and training to help organizations prevent and respond to data breaches.
  
• NERC (North American Electric Reliability Corporation) – NERC (North American Electric Reliability Corporation) – A not-for-profit regulatory authority responsible for ensuring the reliability and security of North America’s bulk power system. Through its Critical Infrastructure Protection (CIP) standards, NERC establishes and enforces cybersecurity requirements for power utilities, transmission operators and other entities that operate critical electrical infrastructure.
  
  The organization develops mandatory reliability standards that address everything from physical security to cybersecurity controls for industrial control systems and operational technology. NERC’s Electricity Information Sharing and Analysis Center (E-ISAC) provides real-time threat monitoring and intelligence sharing across the electricity sector, helping utilities defend against cyber attacks that could disrupt power delivery.
  
  NERC conducts regular audits and assessments of utility compliance with its standards, has the authority to levy fines for violations and coordinates industry-wide grid security exercises like GridEx. The organization works closely with federal partners, including DOE, CISA and FBI, to improve the power grid’s cyber resilience while collaborating with Canadian authorities to ensure consistent security practices across North American electrical infrastructure.
  
• FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) – A Department of Transportation agency that oversees aviation safety and security, including cybersecurity requirements for aircraft systems, air traffic control networks and unmanned aerial vehicles (drones). The FAA develops and enforces regulations to protect critical aviation systems from cyber threats that could compromise flight safety or disrupt air operations.
  
  Through its Aviation Cyber Initiative (ACI), the FAA collaborates with DHS and DOD to identify and mitigate cybersecurity risks across the aviation ecosystem. The agency establishes security standards for aircraft manufacturers, airlines and airports, covering everything from onboard avionics systems to ground-based navigation infrastructure.
  
  The FAA also manages cybersecurity requirements for commercial drone operations through its UAS (Unmanned Aircraft Systems) program, ensuring that drone control systems and communication links are protected from interference or hijacking. As aviation technology becomes increasingly connected, the FAA continues to evolve its cybersecurity framework to address emerging threats to aircraft systems, passenger data and aviation infrastructure.
  
• FDA (Food and Drug Administration) – A federal agency that ensures the cybersecurity of medical devices and healthcare technology through regulation and guidance. The FDA works to protect patients by requiring manufacturers to address cybersecurity throughout a medical device’s entire lifecycle, from design and development to post-market monitoring and updates.
  
  The agency’s cybersecurity oversight extends to everything from networked insulin pumps and pacemakers to hospital imaging systems and remote monitoring devices. Through its premarket review process, the FDA evaluates device security features, vulnerability management plans and software update capabilities before allowing new medical technologies to enter the market.
  
  The FDA collaborates with manufacturers, healthcare providers and security researchers through its Medical Device Cybersecurity Working Group to identify and address emerging threats. When vulnerabilities are discovered, the agency coordinates with manufacturers to issue safety communications and ensure timely patches or updates. The FDA also provides guidance on secure device design, incident response and cybersecurity best practices to help protect patients from potential cyber threats that could compromise their medical devices or treatment.
  
• DOT (Department of Transportation) – A cabinet-level agency that manages cybersecurity for the nation’s transportation infrastructure, focusing on emerging technologies like autonomous vehicles, smart traffic systems and connected transportation networks. The DOT works to ensure that cybersecurity protections are built into new transportation technologies from the ground up.
  
  Through its various administrations, including the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), the DOT develops cybersecurity guidelines for autonomous and connected vehicles to protect against potential hacking or tampering that could compromise safety. The agency also oversees the security of intelligent transportation systems (ITS), including smart traffic signals, highway monitoring systems and vehicle-to-infrastructure communication networks.
  
  The DOT collaborates with auto manufacturers, technology companies and state transportation departments to address cybersecurity challenges in modern transportation. Its Intelligent Transportation Systems Joint Program Office (ITS JPO) researches securing emerging transportation technologies while working with CISA and other federal partners to protect critical transportation infrastructure from cyber threats.

International Cybersecurity & Data Protection Agencies

These agencies develop and enforce global cybersecurity and data protection laws.

• ENISA (European Union Agency for Cybersecurity) – The European Union’s dedicated cybersecurity agency that develops frameworks, standards and guidelines to strengthen cyber resilience across EU member states. Created in 2004, ENISA plays a central role in shaping Europe’s cybersecurity landscape through research, policy development and operational cooperation.
  
  The agency coordinates Europe’s response to large-scale cyber incidents through its Computer Security Incident Response Team (CSIRT) Network and conducts the biennial pan-European cybersecurity exercises known as Cyber Europe. ENISA provides specialized support for critical sectors like telecommunications, energy and healthcare, helping organizations implement security requirements under laws such as the NIS2 Directive.
  
  Through its research and analysis, ENISA identifies emerging cyber threats and develops recommendations for addressing them. The agency supports the EU’s cybersecurity certification framework for ICT products and services, works to harmonize incident reporting requirements across member states and guides topics ranging from cloud security to artificial intelligence. ENISA also plays a key role in implementing the EU’s cybersecurity strategy, helping to build a more secure and resilient digital Europe.
  
• Europol – European Cybercrime Centre (EC3) – Europol – European Cybercrime Centre (EC3) – The European Union’s law enforcement hub for combating cybercrime, established in 2013 as part of Europol. EC3 provides operational support and expertise to EU member states in investigating cybercrimes, focusing on organized cybercriminal networks, ransomware attacks and online fraud.
  
  The centre coordinates cross-border investigations through its Joint Cybercrime Action Taskforce (J-CAT), bringing together cyber investigators from EU countries and international partners. EC3 maintains specialized units focused on cybercrime, including dark web investigations, cryptocurrency tracking and digital forensics. Through its Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment (IOCTA), EC3 provides annual strategic analysis of emerging cyber threats.
  
  EC3 also works closely with private sector partners through its Advisory Groups on financial services, internet security and telecommunications, fostering information sharing between law enforcement and industry. The center supports capacity building across European law enforcement agencies through training programs and technical assistance while also conducting prevention campaigns to raise public awareness about cyber threats and online safety.
  
• FCA (Financial Conduct Authority, UK) – The principal financial services regulator in the United Kingdom, responsible for ensuring the cybersecurity and operational resilience of banks, insurance companies, investment firms and other financial institutions. The FCA sets security standards and supervises how firms protect themselves and their customers from cyber threats.
  
  Through its operational resilience framework, the FCA requires financial firms to identify their important business services and set impact tolerances for disruption, including from cyber attacks. The authority works closely with the Bank of England and National Cyber Security Centre (NCSC) to strengthen the financial sector’s cyber defenses through initiatives like CBEST, which provides intelligence-led penetration testing.
  
  The FCA maintains strict requirements for incident reporting, requiring firms to notify the authorities of material cyber incidents that could harm customers or market integrity. It also provides guidance on emerging risks like cloud computing, ransomware and supply chain security, while conducting regular assessments of firms’ cybersecurity capabilities. Through enforcement actions and fines, the FCA holds financial institutions accountable for cybersecurity failures that put customer data or assets at risk.
  
• CNIL (Commission Nationale de l’Informatique et des Libertés, France) – France’s independent data protection authority, established in 1978 and now serving as the country’s primary enforcer of GDPR and national data protection laws. CNIL wields significant regulatory power to investigate, audit and sanction organizations that fail to protect personal data or violate privacy rights.
  
  The commission takes a proactive approach to data protection through its enforcement activities and public education initiatives. It conducts regular compliance audits, investigates complaints from French citizens and has the authority to impose substantial fines for GDPR violations. CNIL has gained international attention for its enforcement against major tech companies, often leading the way in European privacy protection efforts.
  
  Beyond enforcement, CNIL provides practical guidance to organizations on compliance with data protection regulations, publishes resources on emerging privacy issues and develops tools to help companies assess their data processing activities. The authority also plays a key role in shaping European privacy policy through its participation in the European Data Protection Board (EDPB) and collaboration with other EU data protection authorities.
  
• ICO (Information Commissioner’s Office, UK) – The UK’s independent data protection authority enforces the UK GDPR, Data Protection Act 2018 and other privacy regulations following Brexit. The ICO has broad powers to investigate complaints, conduct audits and issue fines for organizations that fail to protect personal data or respect privacy rights.
  
  The office provides comprehensive guidance to organizations through its accountability framework, helping them understand and implement data protection requirements. The ICO has the authority to impose significant penalties for serious breaches, with maximum fines of £17.5 million or 4% of global turnover, whichever is higher. Notable enforcement actions have addressed data breaches, nuisance calls and misuse of personal information.
  
  The ICO also maintains several essential public services, including the data protection registration system for organizations and the Freedom of Information Act guidance. Through its innovation hub, the office works to address emerging privacy challenges related to artificial intelligence, biometrics and other new technologies while ensuring that UK data protection standards remain robust and adaptable in the post-Brexit environment.
  
• APRA (Australian Prudential Regulation Authority) – Australia’s primary financial services regulator responsible for ensuring the stability and security of banks, insurance companies and superannuation funds. Through its Prudential Standard CPS 234, APRA establishes mandatory cybersecurity requirements for regulated financial institutions to protect against evolving cyber threats.
  
  The authority requires financial organizations to maintain robust information security capabilities, regularly test their cyber defenses and promptly notify APRA of material security incidents. Through its supervision program, APRA assesses institutions’ cybersecurity maturity and resilience, conducting regular reviews and targeted assessments of security controls and incident response capabilities.
  
  APRA collaborates with other Australian agencies like the Australian Cyber Security Centre (ACSC) and international regulators to share threat intelligence and strengthen the financial sector’s cyber defenses. The authority also guides emerging risks such as cloud computing, third-party risk management and ransomware while requiring institutions to maintain adequate resources and expertise to manage their cybersecurity risks effectively.
  
• MAS (Monetary Authority of Singapore) – Singapore’s central bank and integrated financial regulator that sets and enforces comprehensive cybersecurity standards for the nation’s financial sector. Through its Technology Risk Management Guidelines and Business Continuity Management Guidelines, MAS establishes detailed requirements for financial institutions to protect their systems, data and operations from cyber threats.
  
  The authority requires financial institutions to implement robust security measures, including strong authentication controls, encryption and continuous monitoring of cyber threats. MAS’s regulatory framework includes mandatory incident reporting requirements, regular IT audits and penetration testing to ensure the resilience of critical financial systems. The authority also operates the Financial Sector Security Operations Centre (FS-SOC) to strengthen cyber threat detection and response capabilities across Singapore’s financial sector.
  
  As a leader in financial technology innovation, MAS balances security requirements with the need to promote digital transformation in financial services. The authority collaborates with international partners through initiatives like the ASEAN Cybersecurity Resilience and Information Sharing Platform (CRISP) to address cross-border cyber threats and strengthen regional financial security.